Cat stool as an indicator of pet health

About your pets' excrement

In this article we will talk about a sensitive topic.
about your pets' excrement, aka feces. Any encyclopedia will tell you - feces (faeces; synonyms: feces, excrement) - the contents of the distal part of the large intestine, released during defecation.

Normally, cats have bowel movements once or twice a day, the stool is formed, slightly moist and soft, dark brown in color, there is no mucus, blood or undigested food in it. Ideally, the size of the stool should be significantly smaller than the amount of food on the plate (25%). When there is less output than input, the cat extracts more nutrients from the food. Large stools are caused by the presence of undigested filler in feed such as corn and other plant products.

Only one type of feces will allow you to determine how the digestive processes are going, whether any pathology occurs, and will make it clear about the presence of inflammatory processes.

But in order to understand this, let’s look at what criteria are taken into account to evaluate the result of a cat going to the litter box for big matters, precisely those criteria that we can personally evaluate and, if necessary, contact a veterinary clinic for qualified help. There are only three of them: consistency or shape, color and smell.

CONSISTENCY OF STOOL

The consistency depends on the amount of water, fiber, mucus and fat in the stool.
Dense, well-formed feces are excreted in healthy animals. Normally, your pet’s output is formed, not crumbling, having the appearance of a soft “sausage” of normal thickness with a smooth surface or a denser “sausage” type No. 3 and No. 4 on the Bristol scale (see figure).

Hard, dry stool can mean stagnation of stool in the large intestine, megacolon, it has the appearance of a lumpy “sausage” type No. 2 on the Bristol scale. Feces become hard when the rate of movement of chyme through the intestines decreases.

“Sheep feces” in the form of separate dense small lumps, type No. 1 on the Bristol scale, may indicate insufficient water intake, especially when eating dry food in unlimited quantities, and, as an option, a spastic condition of the intestines, namely spastic colitis.

Wet, beginning to lose shape type No. 5 on the Bristol scale means increased motility of the gastrointestinal tract as a result of high fiber intake in food.

Pasty, unformed feces can occur with strong gastrointestinal peristalsis, infections, poisoning type No. 6 on the Bristol scale.

Watery stool without solid inclusions, type No. 7 on the Bristol scale, indicates strong intestinal motility, impaired (cessation) absorption, acute gastrointestinal infections, and severe intoxication.

Feces have a ribbon shape in the presence of hemorrhoids, spasm of the rectal sphincter, anal fissure, or rectal tumor. Due to the narrowing of the anus, it takes the shape of a long, thin, soft “sausage.”

COLOR OF FOCUS

The color of stool is due to the content of stercobilin. Stercobilin (stercobilm) is a brownish-reddish pigment formed during the metabolism of the bile pigments biliverdin and bilirubin, which, in turn, are formed from hemoglobin. Subsequently, stercobilin is excreted from the body in urine or feces.

The color of stool is normally brown, normally it becomes yellow with a milk diet, dark brown with purely meat feeding.

In young animals, milk feeding promotes a light (yellowish-brown) coloration. Some plant foods and medications can change the color of stool (beets, blueberries, bismuth, iron, etc.).

Black or tarry color of feces acquires when there is bleeding in the anterior gastrointestinal tract (stomach, duodenum and small intestine). The reddish color is due to the presence of bleeding in the posterior gastrointestinal tract (colitis with ulceration).

Light brown - with accelerated evacuation from the colon, vegetable feeding.

Green – with the content of bilirubin, biliverdin, increased peristalsis.

Light yellow – with pancreatic insufficiency, fermentative dyspepsia.

Gray-white - acholic feces when bile does not enter the intestines.

SMELL OF FOCUS

The smell is due to the presence of protein breakdown products (indole, skatole, phenol, etc.), which intensifies under rotting conditions with an abundance of protein foods. Prolonged retention of feces (constipation) leads to the absorption of gases, and the odor may almost completely disappear.

Normally, it is specific and unsharp.

A putrid odor appears with insufficiency of gastric digestion, putrefactive dyspepsia, and ulcerative colitis.

Fetid (smell of rancid oil) due to impaired secretion of lipase by the pancreas, lack of bile flow.

The sour smell is caused by fermentation processes in the large intestine and impaired absorption of fatty acids in the small intestine.

And so, what should an ideal poop look like - a good stool should be dark brown, dense, smooth and have a normal smell - the smell of feces. The consistency and texture should be the same throughout the entire load of stool, and it should be easy to remove completely.

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Reasons for changes in stool

Changes in the color and consistency of feces in a kitten or adult cat are often associated with errors in nutrition. When eating unsuitable food, the load on the digestive organs increases. The stomach does not completely digest food, and the intestines cannot fully absorb it. The result is unformed feces in which mucous particles can be found.

Other common causes

Intestinal dysfunction can lead to a change in the color of stool, as a result of which food stagnates in the intestines.
But in addition to poor-quality food, the following diseases and disorders can affect the consistency of excrement:

• Intestinal dysfunction. Insufficient secretion of digestive juices and weak peristalsis contribute to stagnation and fermentation of eaten food in the body. Soon, pathogenic microflora begins to actively multiply, causing increased gas formation and flatulence. The cat's feces turn out to be green.
• Insufficient enzymatic activity of the pancreas. The consequence of this disorder is poor digestion of food, resulting in yellow feces remaining in the tray.
• Hepatitis. As the disease progresses, the functioning of not only the liver, but also the gallbladder is disrupted. As a result, the cat's feces become discolored, but the urine becomes dark brown.
• Internal hemorrhage. If the cat passed liquid black feces onto the tray, this means that bleeding has occurred in the stomach, or more precisely, in the upper section. When bright red blood is present in the stool, this indicates that damage has occurred in the intestine itself.

Orange dry feces often appear in pets when they eat food colored with dyes. If the stool is not soft, but hard, like a goat's, this means that the animal's diet does not have enough fluid. In this case, it is enough to adjust the menu and change the brand of food. If, even after changing the diet, the cat poops liquid or too dry, it is better not to hesitate to visit the veterinarian.

Prevention of diarrhea in cats

The first thing we can recommend is to feed animals with premium and super-premium food. Good food does not contain excess fats or chemicals that irritate the stomach. Don’t skimp on your cat’s health; treatment will be much more expensive.

But there are a few more tips to help prevent diarrhea in pets:

• hide all household chemicals so that the cat cannot reach them even by accident;
• hide food, especially sweets - these furry thieves have a strange craving for sweets, but the result of such a delicacy is diarrhea;
• Give your animals deworming tablets - anthelmintic prophylaxis is carried out once every six months, select the drug according to the weight of the animal;
• monitor the animal's appetite and stool - often problems with the stomach or liver begin with small things, there is also FCoV + FIP, coronavirus infection and infectious peritonitis, which lead to death, and one of the symptoms is intestinal upset in the cat.

What treatment is prescribed?

To stabilize the situation, it is recommended to adjust the animal’s diet by including steamed food in its diet.
If stool that is too liquid or too hard is a consequence of poor nutrition, the first thing you should do is review your pet’s diet. When feeding natural food, it is recommended to diversify the menu with steamed vegetables and fruits, to teach the cat to eat special cat grass, which not only normalizes digestion, but also saturates the body with vitamins and essential elements. If your pet is accustomed to dry food, it is important to ensure that clean and fresh water is freely available.

For constipation, medications with a laxative effect are prescribed, for example:

What can be done to relieve a child's pain?

There are many things parents can do to relieve their child's stomach pain. Often something as simple as gently rubbing the belly with your hand or distracting the child's attention can help relieve the condition. You can also offer the child a drink of water or sit the baby on the potty or toilet. If this does not help, the child can be given paracetamol in the dosage recommended for the appropriate age and weight. Children should not be given aspirin because it can cause a rare but serious condition called Reye's syndrome.

Causes

Diarrhea in a kitten appears several times more often than in adults. What is the reason?

Among the factors contributing to this are:

• Imperfect formation of the digestive system of small kittens.
• Rapid growth and development of the body.
• I still have a weak immune system.

Reasons that can cause diarrhea in kittens include:

• Viral and bacterial infections.
• Poisoning with any chemical substance.
• Worm infestation.
• Changing your diet. This is usually the time when a small kitten comes to a new home. If owners are unfamiliar with the methods of raising cats, problems may arise with proper nutrition of the animal. To begin with, the kitten will be fed everything or even given food that will not be fully absorbed in the small body. Then the grown-up baby will begin to beg for tasty morsels, which inevitably leads to overeating and, as a consequence, to diarrhea.
• Worms - most kittens have these parasites to one degree or another. A baby can become infected from mother's milk, and worms are also transmitted to kittens through fur and from each other. And over time, parasites will begin to enter the body of older cats with adult food, on the street, from fleas.

Kittens have a very sensitive gastrointestinal tract, so you should not suddenly change their diet, especially if low-quality food was used. The stress kittens may experience when moving can also cause distress.

If you give a child paracetamol, will this prevent the doctor from making a correct diagnosis?

There is a perception among parents and doctors that giving a child a painkiller such as paracetamol may prevent the doctor from making a correct diagnosis. However, data from numerous studies have shown that this is not the case. Prescribing paracetamol to a child will not prevent the doctor from diagnosing the child's condition and will not mask the serious cause of the abdominal pain. In fact, a simple pain reliever such as paracetamol may be a good measure to use before deciding whether to take your child to the doctor.

Treatment depending on causes and symptoms

Considering the three reasons why a kitten may develop diarrhea (infections, changes in diet and worms), treatment procedures should be carried out based on ways to eliminate the three main problems. For this purpose, serums with antibodies against various infectious diseases are used. Antibiotics are used to suppress secondary microflora developing on the affected mucous membranes of the intestine.

These can also be probiotics that restore intestinal microflora, and anti-worm medications in the form of a suspension or tablets. Intestinal spasms are relieved with Papaverine, which also helps normalize peristalsis. Diarrhea causes dehydration. To prevent this, small pets may be given IVs. They are also used to relieve toxicosis and for feeding. If possible, drugs are administered intravenously, but given the situation, they are most often limited to subcutaneous administration.

After the first vomiting appears, the animal is stopped feeding. You should know that a kitten is a fragile creature, so not giving it food for too long is dangerous for its life. In this situation, 12 hours without food is the maximum you can do.

If your kitten has diarrhea and vomiting

Often, kittens are not fed properly, which in turn leads to diarrhea and vomiting. What to do in this situation? A sudden change of food, overeating - all this disrupts the processes of food absorption, and the kitten begins to suffer from diarrhea. You should not suddenly change the baby’s diet, you need to switch to new food slowly, slightly increasing the amount of a new product in the pet’s daily diet every day. If it is noticed that the kitten does not know how to eat in moderation, then you need to reduce the amount of serving. It is better to give food less, but more often.

Kittens are extremely inquisitive and the baby can easily eat some poisonous substance. Not only vomiting and diarrhea are provided. If measures to save the pet are not taken promptly, the small cat may not live to see the next day. Diarrhea and vomiting can also be caused by inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract.

What to do? In any of the above cases, you should monitor the development of the situation. If it is clear that the kitten is getting worse every minute and there is no improvement, or other negative signs of the disease appear, then you need to rush to the veterinarian. If, despite diarrhea, the kitten feels quite satisfactory: he is cheerful and playful, then you can try to solve the problem on your own.

The first thing you will have to do is deny your baby access to food. When vomiting, time is sometimes the best medicine. Let the baby’s stomach recover and it is quite possible that the next day there will be no trace of the illness left. Keep in mind that your pet should be given water regularly and preferably in sufficient quantity. After all, water is an additional opportunity to flush the stomach.

If your kitten has bloody diarrhea

Veterinarians have noted several main reasons that cause blood to appear during diarrhea in kittens:

• poor blood clotting;
• damaged intestine, anus;
• use of toxic substances such as rodent poison (warfarin);
• lower intestinal cancer and non-cancerous polyps;
• allergies or individual intolerance to the product;
• various types of infections and parasites.

Possible treatment. Based on the research results, the veterinarian can recommend several methods that have a beneficial effect on the kitten’s condition:

• drugs that help normalize the functioning of the digestive tract;
• antibiotics if your baby gets a bacterial infection;
• anti-worm medications, if detected;
• drinking boiled water;
• change of diet.

If your kitten has diarrhea with mucus

If this symptom is present, the first thing to remember is whether the kitten has recently taken antiparasitic drugs. Usually, diarrhea with mucus in kittens is the body’s reaction to the dominance of parasites in the stomach. These may not even be worms, but the simplest forms:

If therapy aimed at cleansing the pet’s body took place not long ago, then the presence of mucus indicates a successful outcome of the treatment. For mucus is nothing more than the digested remains of dead parasites. Symptoms of this kind pass quickly; it usually takes several days to completely cleanse the body of unwanted neighbors.

But if mucous diarrhea in a kitten is accompanied by other negative symptoms: vomiting, loss of appetite, weakness, fever, then this is already a sign of inflammation of the lower intestine. And whatever disease causes the disorder and loose stools of the pet must be urgently taken to the veterinary clinic. By the way, if you take some animal feces with you as a sample, this will simplify the work of a specialist in making a diagnosis, and therefore speed up the treatment and recovery of the baby. Leave the health work to the doctor, and he will tell you what to do next to ensure that the kitten’s health returns to normal as quickly as possible.

If your kitten has diarrhea and won't eat anything

If this is a very small kitten who has recently begun to wean itself off mother’s milk and its body has not yet fully adapted to adult food, then diarrhea and refusal to eat are a standard occurrence. If the kitten is older, then this situation may arise from the fact that he may overeat. But you should know that this is only normal if the animal goes to the potty as usual.

What does the doctor pay attention to when examining a child?

As with any child being examined by a doctor, the first thing to determine is how severe the child's condition is. To determine this, doctors look at a number of factors, including the baby's general appearance, vital signs such as heart rate, breathing rate, temperature, and any information the parents have given them.

Then the doctor examines the tummy. Simply placing your hand on your stomach can give your doctor a lot of useful information. If the tummy is soft when pressed and does not hurt much, then a serious cause for the pain is much less likely. If there is pressure on the child’s abdomen and he experiences severe discomfort, you should immediately think about hospitalization. Unfortunately, children are poor at localizing pain. Thus, pain caused by a cause outside the abdominal cavity (eg, basal pneumonia, testicular torsion) can also manifest as abdominal pain. Conversely, intra-abdominal problems may result in pain elsewhere (for example, kidney problems may present as testicular pain, and subdiaphragmatic problems may cause shoulder pain).

Simple tests are often done, such as checking the child's urine for infection or checking the child's blood sugar levels. After collecting all the information, the doctor will try to find out the cause of the child’s abdominal pain. In an unhealthy child it is important to find the cause, but often in a healthy child such a cause cannot be found.

Treatment depending on age

It is important to understand that a kitten is the same child and at each stage of life, when faced with such a nuisance as diarrhea, the approach to treatment may be different.

Diarrhea in a one month old kitten

What to do if a one-month-old kitten has diarrhea? The problem may be associated with congenital pathologies. Also, the cause may be intrauterine infections or bad milk in the cat. In some cases, diarrhea in a kitten 1 - 1.5 months old - this is an unsuitable artificial milk formula for feeding.

At such a young age, tiny pets have almost no vitality, and their body cannot yet absorb medications. Therefore, most month-old cats with prolonged, severe diarrhea usually die. Even more can be said about this. Sometimes it’s even good that the kitten dies quickly enough. Otherwise, a painful life full of suffering would have awaited him.

There is no need to get upset ahead of time; if you are not indifferent to the fate of a 1-month-old fluffy ball, then take the kitten to the veterinarian. Perhaps it's not so bad.

Diarrhea in a kitten at 2 months

Diarrhea in two-month-old kittens most often begins due to a change in habitat. This is the age when the older generation is handed over to other hands for further education. And in the near future, new owners often face the question of what to do and how to treat diarrhea in a 2-month-old kitten.

It should be understood that for a baby this is the first step into a new life, and therefore the first shock. A kitten can easily experience stress from being in an unusual environment, and intestinal upset in this case is one of the few pronounced manifestations visible to the naked eye.

The first thing you need to do is make sure that the kitten feels comfortable. To do this, it will not be superfluous to arrange a cozy corner for him, feel sorry for him and support him in every possible way. This way the baby adapts to the new life much faster. If we talk about medications for diarrhea, then these are:

• papaverine, which helps relieve intestinal spasms;
• coapectate, which treats intestinal disorders;
• prebiotics and probiotics.

It is also necessary to put the animal on a strict diet. It’s good if you can find out the food preferences of the previous owner and include the usual food in the baby’s diet. Then, over time, the kitten can be gradually retrained to the food that you consider most suitable.

Diarrhea in a kitten at 3 months

What to do and how to treat a 3-month-old kitten with diarrhea? Three-month-old kittens are already fully formed animals, full of life and energy. Unfortunately, such a scourge as diarrhea does not escape even three-month-old kittens. The most common causes of diarrhea at three months of age are:

• inability to control food intake (the kitten may simply overeat);
• interest in everything new (the baby tries everything, including dangerous substances)
• deworming.

By this time, kittens begin to be vaccinated, but before that the babies undergo their first deworming. Animals' bodies react to this intervention differently, and some kittens can easily develop diarrhea.

If the diarrhea is prolonged, it’s time to see a veterinarian.

Diarrhea in a kitten at 4 months or more

Kittens over four months of age may suffer from diarrhea for the same reasons as adults, namely stress and intestinal diseases. What to do in this case?

• visit to the veterinarian;
• other animals, children, objects making unfamiliar sounds, etc.
• moving to a new home, long trip;
• change of food, water;
• poor nutrition.

Gastrointestinal diseases may include the following:

• bacterial;
• food;
• oncological;
• physical.

To treat a four-month-old kitten, standard methods and regimens are used that correspond to a specific situation.

Prolonged diarrhea without treatment is very dangerous for tiny animals. Severe diarrhea quickly leads to dehydration and death of the kitten. Treatment should only be trusted to a qualified veterinarian. Only a specialist can choose the right treatment path, taking into account the type of disease that caused the diarrhea and the individual characteristics of the pet.

• If the cause of diarrhea is associated with toxic substances such as rat poison, then specific antidotes may be needed for treatment.
• Any type of diarrhea in a kitten is a possible symptom of a viral or bacterial infection. Therefore, it is advisable to undergo examination by a doctor even if you have isolated intestinal disorders.
• If a small pet has worms, it will need to be dewormed twice. And if diarrhea was caused by parasitic protozoa: cryptospores, isospores, cocci, then the young animal will have to undergo a course of therapy and take antibiotics.

The doctor prescribes treatment in any case, even if the cause of diarrhea is associated with mechanical damage to the intestinal walls and other gastrointestinal disorders. Almost every case of diarrhea requires some degree of medical intervention. So what drugs have shown positive results in the treatment of kittens?

Differential diagnosis: conditions causing abdominal pain.

List of medications for treating diarrhea

We have prepared for you a rating of the most popular medications and tablets for diarrhea in kittens.

This human drug has taken its rightful place in the first aid kits of cat lovers, since in some cases it is truly an indispensable first aid remedy for a pet. Enterosgel for kittens will help cleanse the baby's body of toxins. Kittens can be given it when:

• any diarrhea;
• chronic, acute intoxication;
• intestinal infection;
• poisoning.

Enterosgel for kittens is an excellent opportunity to help your baby from the very beginning of the disease.

All antibacterial drugs are divided into classes. This includes both drugs that inhibit the development of bacteria and bactericidal antibiotics for kittens. The most popular medicines include:

• lincosamides;
• glycopeptides;
• aminoglycosides;
• chloramphenicol, etc.

Looking from the outside at the mass of these obscure names, it is easy to understand that only a qualified veterinarian can understand this.

The only contraindication for use is age - up to a month, as well as individual intolerance to any active components of Enterofuril, which can provoke an allergic reaction to use.

In other cases, this powerful antimicrobial drug will help deal with diarrhea in a kitten in a fairly short time. Moreover, for babies it is better to buy a suspension, since it has a more moderate effect on the weak body of a small kitten.

Treatment at home

Treating a kitten for diarrhea at home is generally a fairly mundane task. And if you do everything according to science, then there should be no problems. Let's start with the correct diagnosis of diarrhea.

As a rule, there are no difficulties when diagnosing diarrhea in kittens. The main goal of this process is to determine the cause of diarrhea. And the more accurately the diagnosis is made, the more effective further treatment will be. At your veterinarian’s appointment, you will be asked to tell in as much detail as possible about anything unusual in your pet’s behavior and describe its condition over the past 2-3 days.

At the animal clinic, the veterinarian will conduct an initial examination: measuring temperature, palpating internal organs, determining the degree of dehydration, which will allow him to determine the severity of the disease.

In addition, to determine the cause of the disease, additional studies will need to be carried out: analysis of feces for internal bleeding, for the content of helminth eggs, blood and urine tests; It is recommended to perform an X-ray examination to exclude diseases such as intestinal obstruction, peritonitis, pancreatitis and a number of other diseases.

General recommendations

What to do if a kitten has diarrhea - list of recommendations:

• If it turns out that the cause of diarrhea was spoiled, low-quality feed, then you need to completely stop using it.
• It is necessary to provide the kitten with absolute rest
• On the first day the kitten is not fed, and on the second day the portions are very small.
• Constant access to clean drinking water
• It is recommended to prepare a decoction for the kitten based on oak bark, flax seeds and oatmeal; you can use rice decoction
• To reduce gas formation in the intestines, adsorbents are prescribed (children's smecta, activated carbon, etc.)
• For normal diarrhea, the use of antibiotics and sulfonamides is contraindicated. They negatively affect the intestinal microflora and this only leads to worsening of the condition.
• It is possible to use probiotics (lactobacteria or bifidobacteria)

When should parents see a doctor if their child has a stomach ache?

Parents are often unsure when they should see a doctor about their child's abdominal pain. It always makes sense to consult a doctor if the child’s condition is in doubt or concern. You should not delay seeing a doctor if your child has:

• Strong pain
• Pain that lasts several hours or comes and goes
• The pain is localized in one area of ​​the abdomen.
• The child has a fever (above 38.5⁰C)
• A rash appeared on the skin
• The child is pale, lethargic and drowsy
• The child has prolonged vomiting or diarrhea
• There is blood in the vomit or feces (or the feces turn black)
• The child refuses to eat or drink
• “Lumps” or lumps are felt in the abdomen or groin
• The child complains of pain when urinating
• Urine has an unpleasant odor
• Traces of blood appeared in the urine

Nutrition, prevention and care recommendations

To ensure your kitten always feels good, you should use high quality food. When purchasing a kitten, it is advisable to find out the feeding diet from the former owners and follow it in the future. If you change the feeding regimen, it is recommended to do this gradually: each new type of food is introduced in small portions, monitoring the reaction of the kitten’s body.

You should not hope that the disease will go away on its own. Treatment requires a responsible approach.

Feeding kittens with diarrhea

What to feed a kitten with diarrhea? From the first minute after diarrhea is noticed in a kitten, you need to stop feeding it for 12 hours. This does not apply to water. If the baby is too weak and cannot lap water from a bowl on his own, you should give him water from a pipette or bottle and this should be done regularly. After all, dehydration is the worst enemy of a sick animal. You should know that the transfer of a kitten to normal food after a “hungry day” is done gradually. At the same time, they provide non-fat, low-calorie and gentle food. In the first days after illness, you can give chicken broth, kefir, boiled egg, rice porridge with the addition of ground beef or chicken.

Very important! If your treatment does not have the desired effect, but the kitten’s condition worsens, you should seek help from a veterinary clinic as soon as possible.

If the kitten perks up and starts asking for food, then you can give it a small amount of boiled rice, or you can also give the baby kefir to drink. It’s worth limiting ourselves to this for now. The next day, you can add chicken to your recovering kitten’s diet. So, gradually, the baby will return to normal nutrition without harm to the affected stomach. By the way, products such as milk should be excluded from the patient’s menu. The same applies to fatty, fried and smoked foods.

If parasites are detected in your pet, he will be prescribed a specific course of treatment. You will need to follow a medication regimen and a special diet. This treatment is repeated after some time, in accordance with the instructions. If the body is dehydrated, the kitten will be prescribed IV drips: subcutaneously or intravenously. To do this, you will have to take the kitten to a veterinary clinic or you can call a specialist to your home. If diarrhea is caused by an infectious agent, antibiotics are prescribed for treatment.

Should you call an ambulance?

In most cases, abdominal pain in children is not an emergency, and there is no need to call an ambulance. There are only a small number of cases when it is necessary to seek emergency medical attention, for example:

1. A child experiences abdominal pain after an injury, such as a fall or accident.
2. For boys: Your child has swollen or painful testicles.
3. Vomiting bile
4. Localized pain in the lower abdomen
5. Signs of peritonitis
6. Associated shock
7. Dehydration due to vomiting and/or diarrhea.

If parents are unsure whether their child needs emergency medical care, they should contact the doctor and ask all the necessary questions.

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